Propellant Technologies-White Paper
Summary
All of the new initiatives in NASA Strategic Enterprises require some type of propulsion system for their success. Propellant technologies are the most crucial of these technologies, as they can make the space vehicles safer, more operable, and higher performing. Five technology areas are described and their benefits for future vehicles are briefly discussed.
Introduction
Space exploration and utilization require vehicles that are operable, safe, and reliable. Technologies for improving rocket performance are also desirable. As space missions become more ambitious, the needs for reducing and cost and increasing the capability of rocket systems will increase. Propellant technologies have the power to make space flight more affordable and deliver higher performance.
Why Propellant Technologies?
There have been many extensive investments in propellants over the last 60 years. Many of these ideas related to propellants have languished, with only minimal funding and interest from the major projects of the nation. These ideas represent the creativity of thousands of individuals developed over many years. Now, it seems prudent to take advantage of this enormous national investment and implement the most attractive of these propellants. Investing in propellant technologies can provide benefits across the board to all major programs and NASA Enterprises (Ref. 1).
The Technologies
Five major areas have been identified for fruitful research. The five areas are Monopropellants, Alternative Hydrocarbons, Gelled Hydrogen, Metallized Gelled Propellants, and High Energy Density Propellants. During the development of the NASA Advanced Space Transportation Plan, these technologies were identified as the most likely to have high leverage for new NASA vehicles for each of the Enterprises.
The five technologies are described and their applications and their effect on future missions is discussed.
Monopropellants
Current spacecraft and satellite users and manufacturers are looking for more environmentally benign, safer propellants. Safer propellants can reduce costs by eliminating the need for self-contained atmospheric protective ensemble (SCAPE) suits (Ref. 2) that are needed for toxic propellants. Also, extensive and prohibitive propellant safety precautions, and isolation of the space vehicle from parallel activities during propellant loading operations can be minimized or eliminated (Ref. 3). If used on these satellites, the costs for operating the vehicles will be lowered, in some cases dramatically. Monopropellant testing of hydroxyl ammonium nitrate (HAN)-based fuels has begun to show promise and will soon be adopted for on-board propulsion systems on communications satellites and LEO satellites and constellations (Ref. 4). Other monopropellants using gelled fuels can also improve performance and increase safety (Ref. 5).
A new Small Business Innovation research (SBIR) special (or focused) topic, “Fuels and Space Propellants for Reusable Launch Vehicles,” (Ref. 3) has been established by NASA and one of it’s subtopics was formulated to promote the development and commercialization of monopropellant rocket fuels. This SBIR topic has fostered the teaming of small business with large industry, universities, and government laboratories.
Alternative Hydrocarbons
The regenerative cooling of spacecraft engines and other components can improve overall vehicle performance. Endothermic fuels can absorb energy from an engine nozzle and chamber and help to vaporize high density fuel before entering the combustion chamber (Refs. 6 – 10). Other types of related hydrocarbons can increase fuel density and reduce the overall mass of the vehicle structure, tankage and related thermal protection systems.
A new SBIR special (or focused) topic, “Fuels and Space Propellants for Reusable Launch Vehicles,” (Ref. 3) has been established by NASA, and one of the subtopics was created to promote the development and commercialization of hypersonic airbreathing vehicle fuels.
Gelled Hydrogen
The benefits of gelled hydrogen have been known for many years and experimentally proven in the past (Refs. 11 – 15) There are five major benefits: safety increases, boiloff reductions, density increases with the attendant area and volume related mass reductions for related subsystems (thermal protection system, structure, insulation, etc.), slosh reductions, and specific impulse (Isp) increases (in some cases).
Safety can be significantly increased with gelled fuels. A higher viscosity reduces the spill radius of the gelled hydrogen and limits the potential damage and hazard from a fuel spill. Another important advantage is the potential for leak reduction or elimination. The leak paths from the feed systems would be minimized and the possible explosion potential would be reduced.
Boiloff reduction is another feature of gelled hydrogen. The boiloff reductions are up to a factor of 2 to 3 over ungelled liquid hydrogen (Ref. 11, 12). This feature will assist in long term storage of hydrogen for upper stages that must sustain on-orbit storage or long coast times. Also, lunar flight and interplanetary missions with large hydrogen fuel loads will derive a benefit.
Significant density increases are possible with gelled hydrogen. A 10% density increase is possible with 10% added ethane or methane. These gellants are introduced into the hydrogen as frozen particles that form a gel structure in the hydrogen. References 11 and 12 provides some additional analyses of gelled hydrogen density and performance and some additional discussion of its benefits.
Specific analyses of the performance gains for various missions are dependent on the vehicle and mission design. Systems analyses performed for higher density hydrogen vehicles have shown that the reductions of the gross lift off weight (GLOW) for increased density hydrogen are very significant. In cases where another high density hydrogen, slush hydrogen was used, the density increased by 16%, the GLOW was reduced by 10.2%, or 102,000 lbm. For airbreathing vehicles, such as the National Aerospace Plane (NASP), the estimated reduction in GLOW for slush hydrogen was from 20 to 50%. Thus, a gelled hydrogen with a 10% density increase may deliver a significant fraction of these GLOW reductions and other subsystem mass savings. Supporting references for these analyses are provided in Ref. 11.
Metallized Gelled Propellants
Metallized gelled rocket propellants have been considered for many different applications (Ref. 16-18, and see attached extensive bibliography on gelled propellants). While operational usage has not yet come to fruition, there are many technology programs that are underway to eliminate the unknowns with gelled propellants and the propulsion systems that will use them. Numerous studies have shown the potential benefits of gelled fuels and oxidizers. Technology programs to prove the combustion performance of gelled propellants have been conducted most recently by the U.S. Army Missile Command, with their industry and university partners, for tactical missile applications. The NASA Lewis Research Center and its partners have investigated O2 /H2 /Al and O2 /RP-1 /Al for NASA missions and conducted experimental programs to validate elements of the combustion and fuel technology. Gelled and metallized gelled hydrogen and RP-1 have been emphasized because hydrogen and RP-1 are typical propellants for NASA launch vehicles and upper stages. Derivatives of these propellants are therefore preferred to minimize the incremental risk for a newly introduced propulsion concept. Gelled hydrogen technology is emphasized in this paper. It’s likely applications would be for rocket powered launch vehicles and upper stages, rocket based combined cycle airbreathing vehicles, and combination (rocket and airbreathing) propulsion options.
High Energy Density Propellants
New technologies in atom formulation and physics of material manipulation has led to the discovery and synthesis of materials that can be used in rocket propellants (Ref. 3, and see the attached extensive bibliography on high energy density materials).
Using these propellants is more complex than traditional propellants because of their unique chemistry. While the abovementioned monopropellants are often simpler fuels with additives that are traditional molecules which are stable in storage, the high energy species must be formulated very meticulously because they are not occurring in nature. These formulations offer increased energy density, but they must be manufactured and stored in a stabilizing medium. This medium may be solid hydrogen particles that surround the newly created atoms or molecules and isolate them. Next generation RLV propulsion systems can use these frozen hydrogen particles in a cryogenic liquid carrier, such as helium (Ref. 19).
These fuels are the penultimate step in the development of higher performance, higher density propellants. These more advanced propellants will require longer development times, so they would not be the first propellants to be commercialized. Near term aspects related to these high energy species might be the production methods of the atoms or species, the cryogenic feed system components, such as superinsulation, valves and other flow control components, feed lines, cryogenic storage, and leak detection systems.
Conclusions
Using improved propellants can lower operations cost, simplify spacecraft processing, and make space flight more accessible and affordable. Other capabilities that are enabled with these propellant technologies are better vehicle cooling, reduced cryogenic boiloff, reduced vehicle structural mass, reduced thermal protection requirements, and improved safety.
References
| Title | Author(s) | Source | Topic Area(s) | Year |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| NASA Strategic Plan | NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC | Propellant Technologies | 1996 | |
| Physical, Anthropometrical, and Body Composition Characteristics of Workers at Kennedy Space Center | Lasley, M. L. | NASA-TM-83102, NAS10-10285 | Propellant Technologies | 1985 |
| Briefings to SBIR Convocation | Propellant Technologies | 1996 | ||
| Metallized Gelled Monopropellants | Nieder, E., Harrod, C., Rodgers, F., Rapp, D., and Palaszewski, B. | NASA TM 105418 | Propellant Technologies | 1992 |
| HAN-based monopropellant assessment for spacecraft | Jankovsky, R. | AIAA Paper 96-2863, NASA-TM-107287, AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference Lake Buena Vista, FL | Propellant Technologies | 1996 |
| Endothermic Fuels for Hypersonic Aviation | Ianovski, L., Moses, Clifford | Central Inst. of Aviation Motors, In AGARD, Fuels and Combustion Technology for Advanced Aircraft Engines | Propellant Technologies | 1993 |
| Endothermic Fuels as Heat Sinks for Hypersonic Flight | Nixon, A. | Space/Aeronautics, Vol. 47, May 1967, P. 112- 114. | Propellant Technologies | |
| Endothermic Fuels for Hypersonic Vehicles, | Lander, H., and Nixon, A. | AIAA 5th Annual Meeting and Technical Display, Philadelphia, PA. | Propellant Technologies | 1968 |
| Cooling of Advanced Engines by Endothermic Reactions of Hydrocarbon Fuels | Shell Development Co., In AGARD Aircraft Fuels, Lubricants, and Fire Safety | Propellant Technologies | 1971 | |
| Thermal Management for a Mach 5 Cruise Aircraft Using Endothermic Fuel | Petley, Dennis H., and Jones, Stuart C. | AIAA Paper 90-3284, AIAA/AHS/ASEE Aircraft Design, Systems and Operations Conference, Dayton, OH | Propellant Technologies | 1990 |
| Gelled Hydrogen: A White Paper | Palaszewski, B. | Unpublished Manuscript | Propellant Technologies | 1997 |
| Nanoparticulate Gellants for Metallized Gelled Liquid Hydrogen with Aluminum | Adams, S., Starkovich, J., and Palaszewski, B. | AIAA 96-3234, presented at the 32nd AIAA/ASME/SAE Joint Propulsion Conference, Lake Buena Vista | Propellant Technologies | 1996 |
| Characteristics of a Gelled Liquid Hydrogen Polyphenylene Oxide (PPO) Foam Open-Cell Insulation System | General Dynamics, Report Number GDCA 632-3-169, Contract NAS8-27203 | Propellant Technologies | 1973 | |
| Gelling of Liquid Hydrogen | McKinney, C.D., and Tarpley, W. | Technidyne, Inc., Contract Number NAS3-4186, NASA CR-54967, RR 66-49 | Propellant Technologies | 1966 |
| Evaluation of On-board Hydrogen Storage Methods for High-Speed Aircraft | Akyurtlu, A., and Akyurtlu, J. | Hampton University, NASA-CR-187755 | Propellant Technologies | 1991 |
| Launch Vehicle Propulsion Using Metallized Propellants | Palaszewski, B. and Powell, R. | NASA-Lewis Research Center, AIAA 91-2050, presented at the 27th AIAA/ASME/SAE Joint Propulsion Conference, Sacramento, CA , June 24-27, 1991, also in AIAA Journal of Propulsion and Power, Vol. 10, No. 6, pp. 828-833. | Propellant Technologies | 1994 |
| Design Issues for Propulsion Systems Using Metallized Propellants | Palaszewski, B. and Rapp, D. | NASA-Lewis Research Center, AIAA 91-3484, presented at the AIAA/NASA/OAI Conference On Advanced SEI Technologies, Cleveland, OH | Propellant Technologies | 1991 |
| Propulsion System Hazard Evaluation and Liquid/Gel Propulsion Component Development, Volume 1 | Smith, A. L. and Anderson, R. E. | Technical Report CR-RD-RP-90-2, Contract Number DAAH01-86-C-0110 | Propellant Technologies | 1990 |
| Atomic Hydrogen Propellants: Historical Perspectives and Future Possibilities | Palaszewski, B. | NASA-Lewis Research Center, AIAA 93-0244, presented at the 31st AIAA Aerospace Science Meeting, Reno, NV | Propellant Technologies | 1993 |
Bibliography
Gelled Propellants
| Title | Author(s) | Source(s) | Topic | Year |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| A Review of Thixotropic Gels for Advanced Propulsion Systems | Allan, B. and Chew, W. | JANNAF Propulsion Meeting, CPIA Publication 602. Volume III | Gelled Propellants | 1993 |
| TACAWS Propulsion Development Program | Arszman, J. and Chew, W. | JANNAF Propulsion Meeting, CPIA Publication 602. Volume III | Gelled Propellants | 1993 |
| Some Aspects of Secondary Atomization of Aluminum/ Hydrocarbon Slurry Propellants | Mueller, D. and Turns, S. | AIAA Journal of Propulsion and Power, Volume 9, Number 3 | Gelled Propellants | 1993 |
| Raketen flug technique | Sanger, E. | Berlin: R. Oldenberg, 1933, pp. 53 | Gelled Propellants | |
| Metallized Liquid Propellants | Wells, W. | Space/Aeronautics, Volume 45, June 1966, pp. 76-82 | Gelled Propellants | |
| Some Combustion Problems of High Energy Fuels for Aircraft | Olson, T. and Setze, P. | NACA Preprint, 1958, International Symposium on Combustion, pp. 883-893 and 7th International Symposium on Combustion, London and Oxford | Gelled Propellants | 1958 |
| Advanced Crew Escape Capsule Technologies Program | Trikha, A., Warren, S., and Peters, J. | SAFE Association, Newhall, CA Proceedings, 1987, pp. 196-202 | Gelled Propellants | |
| Characterization of RP-1/Aluminum Gel Propellant Properties | Rapp, D. and Zurawski, R. | AIAA 88-2821 | Gelled Propellants | 1988 |
| The Liquid Rocket Booster as an Element of the U.S. National Space Transportation System | Bialla, P., and Simon, M. | International Astronautical Federation, IAF Paper 89-294 | Gelled Propellants | 1989 |
| Pressurant Conditioning and Storage for a Large (3-million lbf) Pressure-Fed Liquid Rocket Booster | Mobley, T., and Jones, S. | AIAA Paper 89-2763 | Gelled Propellants | 1989 |
| Propulsion System Hazard Evaluation and Liquid/Gel Propulsion Component Development | Smith, A. L. and Anderson, R. E. | Technical Report CR-RD-RP-90-2, Contract Number DAAH01-86-C-0110 | Gelled Propellants | 1990 |
| Computer Program for Calculation of Complex Chemical Equilibrium Compositions, Rocket Performance, Incident and Reflected Shocks, and Chapman-Joguet Detonations | Gordon, S., and McBride, B. | NASA SP-273 | Gelled Propellants | 1976 |
| Metallized Gelled Propellants: Oxygen /RP-1 /Aluminum Rocket Heat Transfer and Combustion Experiments | Palaszewski, B. and Zakany, J. | to be presented at the 32nd AIAA/ASME/SAE Joint Propulsion Conference, Lake Buena Vista | Gelled Propellants | 1996 |
| Nanoparticulate Gellants for Metallized Gelled Liquid Hydrogen with Aluminum | Adams, S., Starkovich, J., and Palaszewski, B. | o be presented at the 32nd AIAA/ASME/SAE Joint Propulsion Conference, Lake Buena Vista | Gelled Propellants | 1996 |
| Metallized Gelled Propellant Experiences and Lessons Learned: Oxygen /RP-1 /Aluminum Rocket Engine Testing | Palaszewski, B. | presented at the Gel Propulsion Technology Symposium, Huntsville, AL | Gelled Propellants | 1995 |
| Metallized Gelled Propellants: Oxygen /RP-1 /Aluminum Rocket Combustion Experiments | AIAA 95-2435, presented at the 31st AIAA/ASME/SAE Joint Propulsion Conference, San Diego, CA | Gelled Propellants | 1995 | |
| Cryogenic Gellant and Fuel Formulation for Metallized Gelled Propellants: Hydrocarbons and Hydrogen with Aluminum | Wong, W., Starkovich, J., Adams, S., and Palaszewski, B. | AIAA 94-3175, presented at the 30th AIAA/ASME/SAE Joint Propulsion Conference, Indianapolis, IN | Gelled Propellants | 1994 |
| Space Transportation Alternatives for Large Space Programs: The International Space University Summer Session - 1992 | Palaszewski, B. | NASA-Lewis Research Center, AIAA 93-2278, presented at the 29th AIAA/ASME/SAE Joint Propulsion Conference, Monterey, CA | Gelled Propellants | 1993 |
| Technology for Gelled Liquid Cryogenic Propellants: Metallized Hydrogen Aluminum | Starkovich, J. and Palaszewski, B. | AIAA 93-1878, presented at the 29th AIAA/ASME/SAE Joint Propulsion Conference, Monterey, CA | Gelled Propellants | 1993 |
| Metallized Gelled Monopropellants | Nieder, E., Harrod, C., Rodgers, F., Rapp, D., and Palaszewski, B. | NASA TM 105418 | Gelled Propellants | 1992 |
| Design Issues for Propulsion Systems Using Metallized Propellants | Palaszewski, B. and Rapp, D. | presented at the AIAA/NASA/OAI Conference On Advanced SEI Technologies, Cleveland, OH | Gelled Propellants | 1991 |
| Launch Vehicle Propulsion Using Metallized Propellants | Palaszewski, B. and Powell, R. | NASA-Lewis Research Center, AIAA 91-2050, presented at the 27th AIAA/ASME/SAE Joint Propulsion Conference, Sacramento, CA , June 24-27, 1991, also in AIAA Journal of Propulsion and Power, Vol. 10, No. 6, pp. 828-833 | Gelled Propellants | 1994 |
| Advanced Launch Vehicle Upper Stages Using Metallized Propellants | Palaszewski, B. | NASA-Lewis Research Center, NASA TP-3191, presented at the JANNAF Propulsion Meeting, Anaheim, CA | Gelled Propellants | 1990 |
| Lunar Missions Using Advanced Chemical Propulsion: System Design Issues | Palaszewski, B. | NASA-Lewis Research Center, NASA TP-3065, AIAA 90-2341, presented at the 26th AIAA/ASME/SAE Joint Propulsion Conference, Orlando, FL, July, 1990, also in AIAA Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets, Vol. 31, No. 3,pp. 458-465 | Gelled Propellants | 1994 |
| Metallized Propellants for the Human Exploration of Mars | Palaszewski, B. | NASA-Lewis Research Center, NASA TP-3062, presented at the Case For Mars IV Conference, Boulder, CO, June 4-8 1990. Also in the AIAA Journal of Propulsion and Power, Vol. 8, No. 6, pp. 1192-1199 | Gelled Propellants | 1992 |
Gelled Hydrogen
| Title | Author(s) | Source(s) | Topic | Year |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Advanced Gellant Materials for Metallized Cryogenic Propellants | Final Report, NAS3-25793 | Gelled Hydrogen | 1993 | |
| Launch Vehicle and Upper Stage Liquid Propulsion at the Astronautics Laboratory (AFSC) - A History Summary | R. Wiswell and M. Huggins | AIAA 90-1839 | Gelled Hydrogen | 1990 |
| Metallized Propellants for the Human Exploration of Mars | Palaszewski, B. A. | Case for Mars IV Conference, Boulder, CO | Gelled Hydrogen | 1990 |
| Lunar Missions Using Advanced Chemical Propulsion; System Design Issues | Palaszewski, B. A. | AIAA 90-2431 | Gelled Hydrogen | 1990 |
| A Study of Hydrogen Slush and/or Hydrogen Gel Utilization - Vol. I | NASA K-11-67-1 | Gelled Hydrogen | 1968 | |
| A Study of Hydrogen Slush and/or Hydrogen Gel Utilization -Vol. II | NASA K-11-67-1 | Gelled Hydrogen | 1968 | |
| Propulsion Systems Hazards Evaluation and Liquid /Gel Propulsion Component Development Program | G. Giola, W. Chew, D. Ryder | Volume IV - Executive Summary, TRW, Inc., Final Report, Contract Number DAAH-01086-C-0114, Technical Report CR-RD-PR-90-1 | Gelled Hydrogen | 1989 |
| Preparative and Mechanistic Studies on Unsymmetrical Dimethyl Hydrazine-Red Fuming Nitric Acid Liquid Propellant Gels | N. Munjal, B. Gupta, and M. Varma | in Propellants, Explosives, and Pyrotechnics, 10, 4, 111 | Gelled Hydrogen | 1985 |
| Carbon Compounds /Liquid Hydrogen Fuels | E. Van der Wall | Aerojet Liquid Rocket Company Final Report, Technical Report FR02-W396, Contract SNP-1 | Gelled Hydrogen | 1970 |
| Cryogenic Gellant and Fuel Formulation for Metallized Gelled Propellants: Hydrocarbons and Hydrogen with Aluminum | Wong, W., Starkovich, J., Adams, S., and Palaszewski, B. | AIAA 94-3175, presented at the 30th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference | Gelled Hydrogen | 1994 |
| Sol-Gel Science | C. J. Brinker and G. W. Scherer | Academic Press | Gelled Hydrogen | 1990 |
| Rheology of Disperse Systems | C. C. Mills | Pergamon Press, New York | Gelled Hydrogen | 1959 |
| Measurement of the Viscosity of Para-Hydrogen | D. E. Diller | J. of Chem. Phys., 42 (6), 2089 | Gelled Hydrogen | 1965 |
| The Viscosity of Liquid Hydrogen | H. E. Johns | Can. J. Res. 17A, 221 | Gelled Hydrogen | 1939 |
| Viscosity Measurement in Liquefied Gases | A. Van Itterbeek, H. Zink, and O. Van Paemel | Cryogenics, 2, 210 | Gelled Hydrogen | 1962 |
| N. S. Rudenko and V. G. Konareva, Zh. Fiz. Khim. | Gelled Hydrogen | 1963 |
High Energy Density Materials
| Title | Author(s) | Source(s) | Topic | Year |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Proceedings of the High Energy Density Materials (HEDM) Contractors | Carrick, P., and Tam, S. | Conference held 4-7 June 1995 in Woods Hole, MA," USAF Phillips Laboratory, Report Number PL-TR-95-3039 | High Energy Density Materials | 1996 |
| Proceedings of the High Energy Density Materials (HEDM) Contractors | Thompson. T. L., and Rodgers, S. L. | Conference held 5-7 June 1994 in Crystal Bay, NV," USAF Phillips Laboratory, Report Number PL-TR-94-3036 | High Energy Density Materials | 1994 |
| Proceedings of the High Energy Density Materials (HEDM) Contractors | Thompson. T. L. | Conference held 6-8 June 1993 in Woods Hole, MA," USAF Phillips Laboratory, Report Number PL-TR-93-3041 | High Energy Density Materials | 1993 |
| Proceedings of the High Energy Density Materials (HEDM) Contractors | Berman, M., Editor | Conference held 5-7 June 1992 in Crystal Bay, NV," Air Force Office of Scientific Research | High Energy Density Materials | 1992 |
| Proceedings of the High Energy Density Materials (HEDM) Contractors | Thompson. T. L. | Conference held 24-27 February 1991 in Albuquerque, NM, USAF Phillips Laboratory, Report Number PL-TR-91-3003 | High Energy Density Materials | 1991 |
| Proceedings of the High Energy Density Materials (HEDM) Contractors | Davis, L., and Wodarczyk, F. | Conference, 25-28 February 1990, Long Beach, CA," Air Force Office of Scientific Research | High Energy Density Materials | 1990 |
| Proceedings of the High Energy Density Materials (HEDM) Contractors | Wiley, T.G, and van Opinjnen, R.A. | Conference held 12-15 March 1989 in New Orleans, LA," USAF Astronautics Laboratory (AFSC), Report Number AL-CP-89-002 | High Energy Density Materials | 1989 |
| Proceedings of the High Energy Density Materials (HEDM) Contractors | Davis, L., and Wodarczyk, F. | Conference, 28 February- 2 March 1988, Newport Beach, CA," Air Force Office of Scientific Research, | High Energy Density Materials | 1988 |
| Atomic Hydrogen Propellants: Historical Perspectives and Future Possibilities | Palaszewski, B. | NASA-Lewis Research Center, AIAA 93-0244, presented at the 31st AIAA Aerospace Science Meeting, Reno, NV | High Energy Density Materials | 1993 |
| Atomic Hydrogen As A Launch Vehicle Propellant | Palaszewski, B. | NASA-Lewis Research Center, AIAA 90 -0715, presented at the 28th AIAA Aerospace Science Meeting, Reno, NV | High Energy Density Materials | 1990 |
| Triangulanes: Stereoisomerism and General Method of Synthesis | N. S. Zefirov, et. al. | J. Am. Chem. Soc., 112, 7702-7707 | High Energy Density Materials | 1990 |
| Strained Organic Compounds | Issue, Chemical Reviews, vol. 89, no. 5 | High Energy Density Materials | 1989 |
Airbreathing Combustion
| Title | Author(s) | Source(s) | Topic | Year |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| The influence of phosphorous oxides and acids on the rate of H + OH recombination | Twarowski, A. | Combustion and Flame, Volume 94, pp 91-107 | Airbreathing Combustion | 1993 |
| Photometric determination of the rate of H2O formation from H and OH in the presence of phosphine combustion products | Twarowski, A. | Combustion and Flame, Volume 94, pp 341-348 | Airbreathing Combustion | 1993 |
| Mixing Studies of Helium in Air at High Supersonic Speeds," | Fuller, E., Mays, R., Thomas, R., and Schetz, J. | AIAA Journal, Volume 30, Number 9, pp. 2234-2243 | Airbreathing Combustion | 1992 |
| A user's primer for comparative assessments of all-rocket and rocket based combined cycle propulsion systems for advanced earth-to-orbit space transport applications | Escher, W., Hyde, E., Anderson, D. | AIAA 95-2474 | Airbreathing Combustion | 1995 |
| The strutjet engine: exploding the myths surrounding high speed airbreathing propulsion | Bulman, M., and Siebenhaar, A. | AIAA 95-2475 | Airbreathing Combustion | 1995 |
| The strutjet engine: the overlooked option for space launch | Siebenhaar, A., and Bulman, M. | AIAA 95-3124 | Airbreathing Combustion | 1995 |